The global development of community psychology as reflected in the American Journal of Community Psychology.

This commentary presents a virtual special issue on the global growth of community psychology (CP), particularly, but not exclusively, as reflected in the American Journal of Community Psychology (AJCP). CP exists in at least 50 countries all over the world, in many of those for over 25 years. Yet, aside from several early Israeli articles, AJCP rarely published work from or about countries outside the US and Canada until the early 2000s, when the number of international articles began to rise sharply. The focus of CP developed differently in different continents. CP in Australia and New Zealand initially followed North America's emphasis on improving social service systems, but has since focused more on environmental and indigenous cultural and decolonial issues that are as salient in those countries as in North America, but have drawn much more attention. CP came later to most of Asia, where it also tended to follow the North American path, but starting in Japan, India, and Hong Kong and now in China and elsewhere, it is establishing its own way. The other two global hotspots for CP for over 40 years have been Europe and Latin America. The level and focus of CP in Europe varies in each country, with some focused on applied developmental psychology and/or community services and others advancing critical and liberation psychology. CP in Latin America evolved from social psychology, but like CP in Sub-Saharan Africa, is also more explicitly political due to a history of political oppression, social activism, and the limitations of individualistic psychology to focus on social change, overcoming poverty, and interventions by (not just for) community members. Despite those differences, CP literature over the past 23 years suggests an increasingly common interest in social justice, multinational collaborations, and decoloniality. There is still a need for more truly (bidirectional) cross-cultural, comparative work for mutual learning, sharing of ideas, methods, and intervention practices, and for CP to develop in countries and communities throughout the globe where it could have the greatest impact.

Resilience, Coloniality, and Sovereign Acts: The Role of Community Activism.

Puerto Rico has been a U.S. colony since 1898. For the past decades, it has been mired in public debt, social problems, and ineffective and corrupt governance. In 2017, the island was hit by hurricanes which devastated our country. After the event, the term "resilience" became ubiquitous. Labeling Puerto Ricans' capacity to tolerate misfortune and suffering "resilient" gave people a false sense of hope and offered government a pretext to postpone or inequitably dispense aid. So-called "resilience" also allowed Puerto Ricans to avoid the impact of colonialism and coloniality on pre-existing conditions which hurricanes accentuated. In this context, community activism played a major role. Community organizations initially provided aid and generated chains of solidarity. They initiated "sovereign acts" which are mostly guided by principles and values espoused by community psychology. Thus, we have a duty to contribute to efforts which can promote liberating our island from colonialism and coloniality.

Psicología y organizaciones sin fines de lucro: comparación de competencias en política pública / Psychology and non-profit organizations: a comparison of public policy competencies

La participación de los psicólogos/as (Ps) y de las organizaciones sin fines de lucro (OSFL) en procesos de política pública (PPP) es importante para elaborar políticas sociales para la sociedad civil. Nuestro objetivo fue comparar las competencias, roles, fases y barreras de Ps y personal de OSFL que participan en PPP. Administramos dos cuestionarios a una muestra de 39 Ps (G1) y 30 personas de OSFL (G2). Realizamos análisis descriptivos de los datos. Las competencias que identificamos en PPP fueron: comunicación oral y escrita, trabajo en equipo, familiarización con estructuras y procedimientos gubernamentales y conocimientos de leyes. Identificamos roles como: consultor/a en formulación de PP y en OSFL. Las fases de PP importantes fueron: identificación del problema, análisis y evaluación. Las barreras incluyeron: falta de educación y apatía. Las competencias de ambos grupos fueron similares. Esto sugiere que existe un grupo de competencias necesarias para enfrentar las barreras en los PPP. La inserción de ambos grupos en distintas fases y la diversidad de roles son necesarias para elaborar políticas sociales cónsonas con la realidad social.

Historias de la psicología comunitaria en América Latina: participación y transformación / Histories of the community psichology in Latin-America: participation and transformation

Contenido: Una introducción a la psicología comunitaria en América Latina. Panorama de la psicología comunitaria en la Argentina: tensiones y desafíos. Psicología social comunitaria en Bolivia. Conducción y consolidación de la psicología social comunitaria en Brasil: conocimientos, prácticas y perspectivas. Historia de la psicología comunitaria en Chile: desde la clandestinidad a la política pública. La psicología comunitaria en Colombia: una aproximación histórica. La psicología comunitaria en Costa Rica: retos y desafíos en su desarrollo. Movimientos comunitarios y psicología comunitaria en Cuba: reflexiones desde su historia. Apuntes sobre el desarrollo de la psicología cominitaria en El Salvador. Entre realidad y utopía: psicología social comunitaria en Guatemala. Psicología comunitaria en Honduras. La informalidad de la psicología comunitaria en México. La experiencia de Nicaragua (1989-2009). Un nuevo desafío para la psicología en Paraguay. Construyendo una psicología comunitaria en el Perú. Historia, prácticas y derroteros de una disciplina puertorriqueña. La psicología comunitaria en la República Dominicana. La psicología comunitaria en Uruguay. La psicología comunitaria en Venezuela: historia de una praxis para el cambio social.

Comportamiento sexual y autoeficacia para la negociación de sexo más seguro en personas heterosexuales / Sexual behavior and self-efficacy for the negotiation of safer sex in heterosexual persons

La autoeficacia se le ha identificado como uno de los factores que puede facilitar o dificultar llevar a cabo sexo más seguro. Estudios revelan que las personas que están el relaciones estables usan métodos de protección menos frecuente que quienes tienen parejas casuales. Realizamos un estudio con 447 personas heterosexuales activas sexualmente. Les administramos un cuestionario dirigido a medir el comportamiento sexual, el uso del condón masculino y la práctica de la masturbación mutua, y la autoeficacia para llevar a cabo estas conductas. Los resultados reflejan que los hombres están más activos sexualmente y que el uso del condón y la práctica de la masturbación mutua como alternativa de sexo más seguro es muy baja. En los casos donde se usa el condón esta práctica es realizada en su mayoría por las personas que se encuentran en una relación de pareja casual. No obstante, los/las participantes tienen altos niveles de autoeficacia hacia ambas prácticas. Aunque la autoeficacia es uno de los factores que incide en decidir llevar a cabo sexo más seguro, ésta no es suficiente para que esta meta se logre.(AU)

Self-efficacy has been defined as one of the factors that may facilitate or impede safer sex. Studies reveal that peoples in steady relationships practice safer sex less often that those in casual relationships. We conducted a study with 447 sexually active heterosexual adults. A self-administered questionnaire was designed to study the sexual behavior, the male condom use and the practice of mutual masturbation, and the self-efficacy toward these practices. Results show that most men are sexually active and that there is a low frequency of male condom use and the practice of mutual masturbation as safer sex. The majority of those who use the male condom are engage in casual relationships. However, participants have high levels of self-efficacy toward these practices. Although self-efficacy is one of the factors that influence in deciding to practice safer sex, it is not sufficient to reach this goal.(AU)

Modelo de adiestramiento para la investigación: la academia "sale a la calle" / A research training model: the academy hit the road

Presentamos un modelo de adiestramiento en investigación para estudiantes universitarios/as. Este sirvió de experiencia para los/as estudiantes mientras permitió que una investigación ambiciosa (LEXIS) se realizara en un corto periodo de tiempo. Describimos como la integración de dos áreas de la psicología es de utilidad para llevar a cabo la experiencia colaborativa. Desde la psicología comunitaria la pirámide educativa, proveyó la estructura para la realización de la tarea, mientras que el modelo de enriquecimiento o significancia de la tarea de la psicología industrial/organizacional sirvió de marco para lograr una experiencia diferente para el estudiantado de psicología. Presentamos los datos cuantitativos y cualitativos que apoyan la integración de los modelos. Concluímos que la motivación de participar en una investigación facilitó que los/as estudiantes se interesaran en participar en LEXIS. Ofrecemos recomendaciones para utilizar ambos modelos en la investigación.(AU)

We present a research training model for undergraduate students. It allowed for the development of a practicum experience for the students which in turn facilitated an ambitious research project (LEXIS) in a short period of time. We describe how the integration of two areas of psychology made the collaborative experience possible. Community psychology provided the educational pyramid model to structure the task, while industrial/organizational psychology reframed the collaborative experience with a job enrichment model for the 30 psychology students. Quantitative and qualitative data sustain the use of both models in research training. Student's motivation to participate in research facilitates their participation in LEXIS. Recommendations for use of the research training model are provided.(AU)

Barriers and facilitators of HIV prevention with heterosexual Latino couples: beliefs of four stakeholder groups.

Although HIV prevention interventions for women are efficacious, long-term behavior change maintenance within power-imbalanced heterosexual relationships has been difficult. To explore the feasibility, content, and format of an HIV intervention for Latino couples, the authors conducted 13 focus groups with HIV/AIDS researchers, service providers, and heterosexual men and women in Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Mexico. Reasons that participants thought that men should be involved in prevention efforts included promotion of shared responsibility, creation of a safe environment for open conversation about sex, and increased sexual negotiation skills. Perceived barriers to men's involvement included cultural taboos, sexual conservatism associated with Catholicism and machismo, and power-imbalanced relationships. Participants stressed the need for recruitment of men within naturally occurring settings or by influential community leaders. Participants indicated that couples-level interventions would be successful if they used strong coed facilitators, included both unigender and mixed-gender discussion opportunities, and addressed personally meaningful topics. Implications of these findings are discussed.

[Sexual Behavior and Self-Efficacy for the Negotiation of Safer Sex in Heterosexual Persons.] / Comportamiento Sexual y Autoeficacia para la Negociación de Sexo Más Seguro en Personas Heterosexuales.

Self-efficacy has been defined as one of the factors that may facilitate or impede safer sex. Studies reveal that peoples in steady relationships practice safer sex less often that those in casual relationships. We conducted a study with 447 sexually active heterosexual adults. A self-administered questionnaire was designed to study the sexual behavior, the male condom use and the practice of mutual masturbation, and the self-efficacy toward these practices. Results show that most men are sexually active and that there is a low frequency of male condom use and the practice of mutual masturbation as safer sex. The majority of those who use the male condom are engage in casual relationships. However, participants have high levels of self-efficacy toward these practices. Although self-efficacy is one of the factors that influence in deciding to practice safer sex, it is not sufficient to reach this goal.

Cambios: ¿cómo influyen en los y las adolescentes de familias reconstituidas? / Changes... How do they influence on adolescents in reconstituted family?

En Puerto Rico, al igual que en países de América Latina, el Caribe y Estados Unidos, existe una alta tasa de divorcios. Muchas personas divorciadas vuelven a casarse, estableciendo una familia reconstituida. En esta nueva relación, la madre o el padre biológico comparte con su pareja (madrastra o padrastro) e hijo/s e hija/s de la relación anterior. Nuestro objetivo fue estudiar cómo se ajustan los hijos e hijas adolescentes de padre y madre divorciados, que ahora integran una familia reconstituida, a los cambios que surgen como resultado de pertenecer a la misma. Seleccionamos personas adolescentes ya que ésta es una etapa de transición importante en su desarrollo. Además, en estudios previos se señala que el divorcio afecta a los y las adolescentes más que a otros miembros del núcleo familiar. Realizamos entrevistas semi-estructuradas con integrantes adultos/as y adolescentes de ocho familias reconstituidas. Los y las adolescentes informaron que al formar parte de la familia reconstituida se enfrentaron a cambios negativos y positivos, entre ellos: cambio de escuela, alejamiento de familiares, compartir con familiares de la nueva pareja de su madre o padre, mejoría en los procesos de comunicación y en el estatus económico. Recomendamos investigaciones e intervenciones futuras dirigidas a esta población.(AU)

A high rate of divorce exists in Puerto Rico, however, many divorced people decide to remarry, establishing a reconstituted family. In this new relation the biological mother or father shares with their new relationship (mother and father in law) and also with their children of their first relation. They can come into this relationship with their children or they can have children of their own. Our objective was to study how adolescent children of mothers and fathers who are divorced adjust to a newly reconstituted family and the changes that come as a result of being a part of this family. We selected adolescents because this is an important stage in a child's development. Furthermore, in previous studies authors report that divorce affects adolescents more than other members of the family. We carried out semi-structured interviews with adults and adolescents of eight reconstituted families. The adolescents informed us of how negative and positive changes had affected them when the reconstituted family was formed. The adolescents reported that when forming part of a reconstituted family, they faced both negative and positive changes, such as change of school, distancing from relatives, spending time with relatives of their father or mother's new spouse, improvement in the communication processes and the economical status. We recommend research and future interventions directed at this population.(AU)

Cambios: ¿cómo influyen en los y las adolescentes de familias reconstituidas? / Changes: how do they influence on adolescents in reconstituted family?

En Puerto Rico, al igual que en países de América Latina, el Caribe y Estados Unidos, existe una alta tasa de divorcios. Muchas personas divorciadas vuelven a casarse, estableciendo una familia reconstituida. En esta nueva relación, la madre o el padre biológico comparte con su pareja (madrastra o padrastro) e hijo/s e hija/s de la relación anterior. Nuestro objetivo fue estudiar cómo se ajustan los hijos e hijas adolescentes de padre y madre divorciados, que ahora integran una familia reconstituida, a los cambios que surgen como resultado de pertenecer a la misma. Seleccionamos personas adolescentes ya que ésta es una etapa de transición importante en su desarrollo. Además, en estudios previos se señala que el divorcio afecta a los y las adolescentes más que a otros miembros del núcleo familiar. Realizamos entrevistas semi-estructuradas con integrantes adultos/as y adolescentes de ocho familias reconstituidas. Los y las adolescentes informaron que al formar parte de la familia reconstituida se enfrentaron a cambios negativos y positivos, entre ellos: cambio de escuela, alejamiento de familiares, compartir con familiares de la nueva pareja de su madre o padre, mejoría en los procesos de comunicación y en el estatus económico. Recomendamos investigaciones e intervenciones futuras dirigidas a esta población.

A high rate of divorce exists in Puerto Rico, however, many divorced people decide to remarry, establishing a reconstituted family. In this new relation the biological mother or father shares with their new relationship (mother and father in law) and also with their children of their first relation. They can come into this relationship with their children or they can have children of their own. Our objective was to study how adolescent children of mothers and fathers who are divorced adjust to a newly reconstituted family and the changes that come as a result of being a part of this family. We selected adolescents because this is an important stage in a child's development. Furthermore, in previous studies authors report that divorce affects adolescents more than other members of the family. We carried out semi-structured interviews with adults and adolescents of eight reconstituted families. The adolescents informed us of how negative and positive changes had affected them when the reconstituted family was formed. The adolescents reported that when forming part of a reconstituted family, they faced both negative and positive changes, such as change of school, distancing from relatives, spending time with relatives of their father or mother's new spouse, improvement in the communication processes and the economical status. We recommend research and future interventions directed at this population.

To be different: the challenge of social-community psychology.

Summarizes the author's life and how differences contributed to her selection of community psychology and to various choices she has made to further her goals. Focuses on her context within a colonial setting and on the significance of being a woman in her particular environment. Shows how clarity and steadfastness to ideals linked to divergent skills and a collaborative and participatory ideology have bred change. Signifies students' contributions to the generation of new energy as well as new conceptualizations. Finally, stresses the importance of international and interdisciplinary collaborations to enrich both our lives and the discipline of community psychology.

Men's role in HIV/AIDS prevention for women: exploring different views.

OBJECTIVE: Explore the role male partners should play in interventions that emerge from an empowerment perspective for the prevention of HIV/AIDS in women. Explore the social and cultural context, rationale and format for interventions if male partners are incorporated. BACKGROUND: Heterosexual women have become the most at risk group for HIV infection. Most of the HIV/AIDS prevention efforts have excluded the participation of male partners. Interventions with women have not been as affective as desired since the negotiation of safer sex method, such as the male condom, is not under their control. METHODS: Thirteen focus groups were conducted in Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic and Mexico. Groups were conducted with HIV/AIDS prevention researchers, service providers, and heterosexual men and women who participated in HIV/AIDS prevention interventions. The taped conversations were transcribed and analyzed using content analysis according to a set of defined categories and subcategories. RESULTS: The majority of participants agreed that men must be incorporated in HIV prevention efforts with women. Many conditioned this participation, while some expressed their opposition. Regarding the ways of participation many favored working with men and women separately at the beginning and integrating at the end. They recommended considering working at a group level. CONCLUSIONS: The HIV/AIDS epidemic has put in the forefront the need to consider non-traditional approaches to promote behavior change. A group-base intervention with couples may be an effective way to prevent the HIV/AIDS epidemic.

Las iglesias protestantes en Puerto Rico ante el VIH/SIDA: opiniones de líderes de dos denominaciones / Protestant churches in Puerto Rico facing HIV/AIDS: opinions of religious leaders of two denominations

Ante el problema de salud urgente que plantea el VIH/SIDA para Puerto Rico, decidimos explorar el rol que las iglesias protestantes podrían asumir en su prevención. Se entrevistaron siete líderes religiosos/as de las denominaciones Discípulos de Cristo y Evangélica Unida para conocer sus recomendaciones en torno a las estrategias, temas, y personas que deben recibir y facilitar esfuerzos de prevención desde las iglesias. También se indagó sobre la disponibilidad de recursos para implantar estos esfuerzos. Todos/as expresaron que las iglesias protestantes deben participar en la prevención del VIH/SIDA. Recomendaron que un equipo multidisciplinario ofrezca charlas y talleres sobre temas como la abstinencia y la masturbación con énfasis en la juventud. Manifestaron que las iglesias cuentan con recursos para implantar las estrategias propuestas. Incluimos recomendaciones a tono con estos resultados.(AU)

Given the urgent health situation that HIV/AIDS generates for Puerto Rico, we explored the role protestant churches could have in its prevention. Seven leaders of the Disciples of Christ and the United Evangelical denominations were interviewed to learn of their recommendations regarding strategies, themes and people who should receive and facilitate preventive efforts stemming from the church. We also inquired about the availability of resources to implement these efforts. All participants believed their churches should engage in HIV/AIDS prevention. They recommended that an interdisciplinary group give lectures or workshops on issues such as abstinence and masturbation with a focus on youth. They think the church has the resources to implement these activities. We include recommendations according to these results.(AU)

Las iglesias protestantes en Puerto Rico ante el VIH/SIDA: opiniones de líderes de dos denominaciones / Protestant churches in Puerto Rico facing HIV/AIDS: opinions of religious leaders of two denominations

Ante el problema de salud urgente que plantea el VIH/SIDA para Puerto Rico, decidimos explorar el rol que las iglesias protestantes podrían asumir en su prevención. Se entrevistaron siete líderes religiosos/as de las denominaciones Discípulos de Cristo y Evangélica Unida para conocer sus recomendaciones en torno a las estrategias, temas, y personas que deben recibir y facilitar esfuerzos de prevención desde las iglesias. También se indagó sobre la disponibilidad de recursos para implantar estos esfuerzos. Todos/as expresaron que las iglesias protestantes deben participar en la prevención del VIH/SIDA. Recomendaron que un equipo multidisciplinario ofrezca charlas y talleres sobre temas como la abstinencia y la masturbación con énfasis en la juventud. Manifestaron que las iglesias cuentan con recursos para implantar las estrategias propuestas. Incluimos recomendaciones a tono con estos resultados.

Given the urgent health situation that HIV/AIDS generates for Puerto Rico, we explored the role protestant churches could have in its prevention. Seven leaders of the Disciples of Christ and the United Evangelical denominations were interviewed to learn of their recommendations regarding strategies, themes and people who should receive and facilitate preventive efforts stemming from the church. We also inquired about the availability of resources to implement these efforts. All participants believed their churches should engage in HIV/AIDS prevention. They recommended that an interdisciplinary group give lectures or workshops on issues such as abstinence and masturbation with a focus on youth. They think the church has the resources to implement these activities. We include recommendations according to these results.

Auto eficacia e la negociación sexual:: retos ara la prevención de vih/sida een mujeres puertorriqueñas / Self-eficacy in sexual negotiation:: challenges for hi/aids preventioon in puerto rican woenn

Sexual negotiation has been proved to be one of the most effective prevention strategies for managing the conflicts related with sexual safe practice and to help women to protect themselves from contracting HIV/AIDS. Self-efficacy is a main concept in Social Cognitive Theory (SCT); it constitutes a mediator variable during sexual negotiation. The objective of this study was to explore self efficacy perception in a group of Puerto Rican women (N=110). We administered the Self-Efficacy Scale. Women perceived themselves with lower levels of self efficacy when negotiating non-penetrative sexual practices and managing their emotions during sexual negotiation. We discuss the implications of the use of self-efficacy in developing HIV preventive interventions in Puerto Rico and the Caribbean.

La negociación se ha planteado como la estrategia más adecuada para trabajar conflictos vinculados a las prócticas sexuales seguras, alternativa que le permite a las mujeres protegerse contra el VIH/SIDA. La autoeficacia, concepto central de la Teoría Social Cognitiva (TSC), constituye una variable mediadora en dicho proceso. Por esto, este estudio tuvo como objetivo examinar la percepción de autoeficacia en un grupo de mujeres universitarias puertorriqueñas (N=110) como resultado de la administración de la Escala de Autoeficacia (EAE). Entre los resultados mós pertinentes encontramos que las mujeres expresaron percibirse menos autoeficaces negociando la próctica de conductas no penetrativas, y manejando sus emociones. Discutimos las implicaciones que tiene la autoeficacia particularmente en el desarrollo de intervenciones preventivas del VIH/SIDA tanto en Puerto Rico como el Caribe.

AIDS-related stigma and social interaction: Puerto Ricans living with HIV/AIDS.

People living with HIV/AIDS are stigmatized. Although personal and social consequences of this stigmatization have been documented, research regarding its impact on social interactions is scarce. Latinos, and Puerto Ricans in particular, have voiced concern regarding AIDS stigma. The authors investigated the key role of social interaction in the process of stigmatization through in-depth, semistructured interviews in a sample of 30 Puerto Ricans living with HIV/AIDS. Participants reported instances in which AIDS stigma negatively influenced social interactions with family, friends, sexual partners, coworkers, and health professionals. Some of the consequences they described were loss of social support, persecution, isolation, job loss, and problems accessing health services. Findings support the need for interventions to address AIDS stigma and its consequences.

The challenge of a positive self-image in a colonial context: a psychology of liberation for the Puerto Rican experience.

Community psychology and the psychology of liberation provide a framework to analyze colonization. Puerto Rico has always been a colony. This experience has direct negative effects on Puerto Ricans' national identities and their emotions. The purpose of this study was to explore emotions associated with Puerto Rican national identities in a sample of 35 high school students. While participating in 4 focus groups, the youths discussed negative and positive emotions associated to their national identities. The most frequent ones were shame and pride. They also identified situations which promoted negative and positive emotions. The role of a community psychology of liberation in understanding these phenomena as well as in embracing resistance to colonization is discussed.

Desarrollo de un instrumento para evaluar el manejo de conflictos y la negociación sexual: una aportación a la lucha contra el VIH/SIDA entre mujeres / Development of a tool for evaluating conflict management and sexual negotiation: a contribution to the fight against HIV/AIDS among women

The development and validation process of the Video Rating Scale of Conflict Management and Sexual Negotiation (EAVI) is presented. This instrument was developed as a response to the growing incidence of HIV/AIDS infection among heterosexual women and recognizes the need to evaluate prevention efforts that focus on the development of sexual negotiation skills. EAVI was used to evaluate taped simulations of couples negotiating safer sex. Content validity and reliability analysis were performed. Overall, the scale has a content validity score of .90 and a reliability of 75. The validity and reliability of specific subscales was low thus suggesting a need for revision. Suggestions are provided for improving the measure and examples of its actual usefulness in academic and community settings are presented.